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B.Pharmacy 1st Semester Human Anatomy And Physiology Ist 

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Human Anatomy And Physiology Ist Important Question Answer  

Human Anatomy And Physiology Ist Very Short Question Answer [2 Marks]  

1. Define sagittal & coronal plane: 

• Sagittal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts. 

• Coronal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts. 

 

2. What is catabolism and anabolism? 

• Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. 

• Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy. 

 

3. Define osteoblast & osteoclast: 

• Osteoblast: A bone-forming cell that synthesizes bone matrix. 

• Osteoclast: A bone-resorbing cell that breaks down bone tissue. 

 

4. Draw a well-labeled diagram of a cell: 
(Please refer to your textbook diagram. A labeled diagram should include: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, rough/smooth ER, cytoplasm, cell membrane.) 

 

5. What do you mean by Rh factor? 
Rh factor is a protein antigen present on the surface of red blood cells. Individuals are Rh+ if it is present and Rh− if absent. It is important in blood transfusion and pregnancy. 

 

6. Write about two main functions of the lymphatic system: 

1. Maintains fluid balance by returning interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. 

2. Defends the body against infections by transporting lymph containing white blood cells. 

 

7. Write the name of pigment present in rod and cone cells: 

• Rod cells: Rhodopsin 

• Cone cells: Photopsins 

 

8. Name the bones present in the ear: 

1. Malleus 

2. Incus 

3. Stapes 

 

9. Define cell junction and its types: 
Cell junctions are connections between adjacent cells. 
Types: 

1. Tight junctions 

2. Gap junctions 

3. Desmosomes 

 

10. Explain the terms paracrine & endocrine signaling: 

• Paracrine: Cell signals target nearby cells. 

• Endocrine: Cell signals travel via the bloodstream to distant target cells. 

 

11. Define anatomy and physiology: 

• Anatomy: Study of the structure of the body and its parts. 

• Physiology: Study of the functions of body parts and systems. 

 

12. Write the function of mitochondria: 
Mitochondria generate ATP through cellular respiration, acting as the "powerhouse" of the cell. 

 

13. Define osteoblast & osteoclast: 
Already answered in Q3. 

 

14. Write the name of pigment present in rod and cone cell: 
Already answered in Q7. 

 

15. What is catabolism and anabolism? 
Already answered in Q2. 

 

16. Write about two main functions of skin: 

1. Protects internal organs from pathogens, UV rays, and dehydration. 

2. Regulates body temperature through sweat and blood flow. 

 

17. Define sagittal and parasagittal plane: 

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left halves. 

• Parasagittal plane: A sagittal plane that does not divide the body into equal halves. 

 

18. Name the bones present in the ear: 
Already answered in Q8. 

 

19. Define the term homeostasis: 
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. 

 

20. What is erythropoiesis? 
Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell (RBC) production, mainly occurring in bone marrow. 

 

21. Explain the term autocrine and juxtacrine signaling: 

• Autocrine: A cell targets itself with signals. 

• Juxtacrine: Direct contact signaling between adjacent cells. 

 

22. Name the gland which secretes wax in the ear: 
Ceruminous glands secrete wax (cerumen) in the external auditory canal. 

 

23. What is hemoglobin? What are its normal values in humans and write about its importance in human body? 
Hemoglobin is a protein in RBCs that carries oxygen. 

• Normal values: 

• Male: 13.8–17.2 g/dL 

• Female: 12.1–15.1 g/dL 

• Importance: Transports oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide back to lungs. 

 

24. What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine gland? 

• Endocrine glands: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid). 

• Exocrine glands: Secrete substances through ducts (e.g., sweat glands). 

 

25. Define autophagy and autolysis: 

• Autophagy: The process by which cells degrade and recycle their own components. 

• Autolysis: Self-digestion of cells through release of enzymes from lysosomes. 

 

26. Write any two functions of ribosome: 

1. Protein synthesis 

2. Translating mRNA into polypeptide chains 

 

27. Differentiate between thick and thin filament: 

• Thick filament: Composed of myosin; involved in muscle contraction. 

• Thin filament: Composed of actin, troponin, and tropomyosin. 

 

28. Name the largest nerve of human body: 
The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body. 

 

29. What do you mean by heart rate? 
Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per minute. Normal resting rate is 60–100 bpm. 

 

30. Write the primary neurotransmitters of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system: 

• Sympathetic: Norepinephrine 

• Parasympathetic: Acetylcholine 

 

31. Define sagittal & coronal plane: 
Already answered in Q1. 

 

32. Write the function of ribosome: 
Already answered in Q26. 

 

33. Define osteoblast & osteoclast: 
Already answered in Q3. 

 

34. Draw a well-labeled diagram of cell: 
Already answered in Q4. 

 

35. What is catabolism and anabolism? 
Already answered in Q2. 

 

36. Write about the two main functions of skin: 
Already answered in Q16. 

 

37. Write the name of pigment present in rod and cone cell: 
Already answered in Q7. 

 

38. Name the bones present in the ear: 
Already answered in Q8. 

 

39. Write a short note on regulation of blood pressure: 
Blood pressure is regulated by: 

1. Baroreceptors: Detect pressure changes and signal the brain. 

2. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS): Increases blood volume and pressure. 

3. Autonomic Nervous System: Controls vessel diameter and heart rate. 

 

40. Define optic disc: 
Optic disc is the point on the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye. It is known as the "blind spot" due to lack of photoreceptors. 

 

 

Human Anatomy And Physiology Ist Short Question Answer [ Marks] 

 

1. Write about the structure and function of plasma membrane. 
The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is a thin, flexible barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm of cells. Structurally, it follows the Fluid Mosaic Model, primarily composed of a phospholipid bilayer interspersed with proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates. 

• Phospholipid bilayer: Has hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing semi-permeability. 

• Integral and peripheral proteins: Involved in transport, signal transduction, and enzymatic activity. 

• Cholesterol: Maintains membrane fluidity and stability. 

• Carbohydrates: Attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids), functioning in cell recognition and adhesion. 

Functions: 

1. Selective permeability: Regulates entry and exit of substances. 

2. Protection: Acts as a barrier between intracellular and extracellular environments. 

3. Cell signaling: Contains receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters. 

4. Transport: Facilitates passive and active transport. 

5. Intercellular communication: Through cell junctions and recognition molecules. 

 

2. Explain the physiology of skeletal muscle contraction. 
Skeletal muscle contraction follows the Sliding Filament Theory, involving interaction between actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament). 

Steps involved: 

1. Neuromuscular transmission: A motor neuron releases acetylcholine (ACh) into the neuromuscular junction. 

2. Depolarization: ACh binds to receptors on the muscle fiber, initiating an action potential. 

3. Calcium release: The action potential travels through T-tubules, causing the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release Ca²⁺. 

4. Cross-bridge formation: Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, shifting tropomyosin to expose actin binding sites. 

5. Power stroke: Myosin heads bind actin and pivot, pulling filaments inward using ATP. 

6. Relaxation: Ca²⁺ is actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum; tropomyosin covers actin again. 

This cyclic interaction shortens the muscle fiber, producing contraction. ATP is crucial for both contraction and relaxation phases. 

 

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3. Write about the structure and function of long bone. 
A long bone consists of a diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses (ends): 

• Diaphysis: Composed of compact bone surrounding a central medullary cavity, which contains yellow bone marrow. 

• Epiphyses: Wider ends composed of spongy bone housing red marrow. 

• Metaphysis: Region between diaphysis and epiphysis, contains the epiphyseal plate in growing bones. 

• Periosteum: A dense fibrous membrane covering the bone, rich in nerves and blood vessels. 

• Endosteum: Membrane lining the medullary cavity. 

Functions: 

1. Support: Provides framework and shape. 

2. Movement: Acts as levers for muscle attachment. 

3. Protection: Shields internal organs (e.g., femur protects thigh blood vessels). 

4. Hematopoiesis: Red marrow in epiphyses produces blood cells. 

5. Mineral storage: Reservoir for calcium and phosphorus. 

4. Write a note on erythropoiesis. 
Erythropoiesis is the process of formation of red blood cells (RBCs), which occurs primarily in the red bone marrow of long bones, sternum, ribs, and vertebrae. The process ensures a steady supply of RBCs to replace those lost due to aging (lifespan ~120 days). 

Stages of erythropoiesis: 

1. Hemocytoblast (pluripotent stem cell) 

2. Proerythroblast 

3. Basophilic erythroblast 

4. Polychromatophilic erythroblast 

5. Orthochromatic erythroblast 

6. Reticulocyte 

7. Mature erythrocyte (RBC) 

During maturation, the cell loses its nucleus and organelles, accumulates hemoglobin, and gains a biconcave shape. 

Regulation: 

• Stimulated by Erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to hypoxia (low oxygen levels). 

• Requires nutrients like iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, and proteins. 

Functions of RBCs: 

• Carry oxygen from lungs to tissues via hemoglobin. 

• Transport CO₂ back to lungs for exhalation. 

 

5. Differentiate between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 

Feature	Sympathetic NS	Parasympathetic NS
Origin	Thoracolumbar region (T1–L2)	Craniosacral region (Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X & S2–S4)
Function	“Fight or Flight” (emergency response)	“Rest and Digest” (normal functions)
Neurotransmitter (postganglionic)	Norepinephrine (adrenergic)	Acetylcholine (cholinergic)
Heart Rate	Increases	Decreases
Pupil	Dilates	Constricts
Digestive Activity	Decreases	Increases

They work antagonistically to maintain homeostasis in body functions. 

 

6. Discuss about the mechanism and physiology of hearing. 
Hearing involves converting sound waves into electrical signals interpreted by the brain. 

1. Sound conduction: 

• Sound waves enter the external auditory canal and strike the tympanic membrane (eardrum), causing it to vibrate. 

2. Transmission by ossicles: 

• Vibrations are passed through malleus → incus → stapes, which amplify the sound and transmit it to the oval window of the cochlea. 

3. Cochlear processing: 

• The cochlea (fluid-filled spiral organ) receives vibrations. Movement of fluid causes the basilar membrane to vibrate. 

• Hair cells in the Organ of Corti detect vibrations and convert them into electrical signals via mechanical bending. 

4. Signal transmission: 

• Electrical signals are sent via the auditory (cochlear) nerve to the auditory cortex of the brain (temporal lobe), where sound is perceived. 

This process enables hearing and helps in sound localization and balance. 

7. Write a note on ECG. 
An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a graphic recording of the electrical activity of the heart over time. It is a non-invasive diagnostic tool used to assess the heart’s rhythm, rate, and conduction system. 

Electrode Placement: 
Electrodes are placed on the chest and limbs to detect electrical signals. These signals are amplified and recorded as waves. 

Major ECG Waves and Intervals: 

1. P wave: Atrial depolarization (contraction of atria). 

2. QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization (contraction of ventricles). 

3. T wave: Ventricular repolarization (relaxation of ventricles). 

4. PR interval: Time from onset of atrial depolarization to ventricular depolarization. 

5. ST segment: Time between ventricular depolarization and repolarization. 

Clinical Importance: 

• Arrhythmias (irregular heartbeat) 

• Myocardial infarction (heart attack) 

• Ischemia 

• Heart block 

• Electrolyte imbalances 

ECG is quick, painless, and crucial for early detection of heart abnormalities. 

 

8. Discuss conducting system of heart. 
The heart’s conducting system ensures rhythmic contraction through specialized cardiac muscle cells that generate and transmit electrical impulses. 

Components of the Conducting System: 

1. Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Located in the right atrium; initiates impulses; acts as the natural pacemaker (~70–100 bpm). 

2. Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Delays the impulse to allow atrial contraction before ventricular contraction. 

3. Bundle of His (AV Bundle): Conducts impulse from AV node to ventricles. 

4. Right and Left Bundle Branches: Carry impulse through interventricular septum. 

5. Purkinje Fibers: Spread throughout ventricular myocardium; ensure synchronized contraction. 

Sequence of Impulse Flow: 
SA Node → Atria → AV Node → Bundle of His → Bundle Branches → Purkinje Fibers → Ventricles 

This conduction ensures coordinated pumping of blood from atria to ventricles and then to lungs/body. 

 

9. Write about the structure and function of skin. 
The skin is the body’s largest organ, forming a protective barrier against the external environment. 

Structure of Skin: 

1. Epidermis: Outer layer, avascular, contains keratinocytes, melanocytes. 

2. Dermis: Middle layer, dense connective tissue, contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands. 

3. Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): Composed of fat and connective tissue. 

Functions of Skin: 

1. Protection: Against pathogens, UV rays, chemicals, and dehydration. 

2. Thermoregulation: Through sweat glands and blood flow regulation. 

3. Sensation: Contains receptors for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. 

4. Vitamin D synthesis: In presence of sunlight. 

5. Excretion: Through sweat (salts, urea). 

Skin also plays a role in immunity and wound healing. 

10. Classify transport across plasma membrane. Explain the process of primary active transport. 

Transport across the plasma membrane is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis. It is classified into: 

1. Passive Transport (no energy required): 

• Simple diffusion 

• Facilitated diffusion (via channels/carriers) 

• Osmosis (movement of water) 

2. Active Transport (requires ATP): 

• Primary active transport 

• Secondary active transport 

3. Bulk Transport: 

• Endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis) 

• Exocytosis 

 

Primary Active Transport: 
This process involves the direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient (low to high concentration). 

Mechanism: 

• A carrier protein (pump) binds to the substance. 

• ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi, providing energy. 

• The pump changes shape, transporting the molecule across the membrane. 

• Example: Sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase) 

Sodium-Potassium Pump: 

• Moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in per ATP. 

• Maintains resting membrane potential and osmotic balance. 

This transport is vital in nerve impulse conduction, muscle contraction, and cell volume regulation. 

 

11. Explain the structure of long bone with the help of diagram. 

A long bone has a tubular shaft (diaphysis) and two wider ends (epiphyses). 

Main Parts: 

1. Diaphysis: 

• Shaft of the bone. 

• Composed of compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity (filled with yellow marrow). 

2. Epiphysis: 

• Ends of the bone, made of spongy (cancellous) bone containing red marrow for blood cell production. 

3. Metaphysis: 

• Area between diaphysis and epiphysis, contains the epiphyseal (growth) plate in growing bones. 

4. Periosteum: 

• Outer fibrous membrane covering the bone, rich in blood vessels and nerves. 

5. Endosteum: 

• Lines the medullary cavity. 

6. Articular cartilage: 

• Covers the epiphyseal surface, reduces friction in joints. 

Functions: 

• Support, leverage for movement, blood formation, protection, and mineral storage (especially calcium and phosphorus). 

(A labeled diagram should include diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, periosteum, medullary cavity, and articular cartilage.) 

 

12. Discuss the structure and functions of lymph node. 

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that act as filters for lymphatic fluid. They are key components of the immune system. 

Structure: 

• Surrounded by a capsule. 

• Internally divided into: 

• Cortex: Contains lymphoid follicles rich in B-lymphocytes and macrophages. 

• Paracortex: Contains T-lymphocytes. 

• Medulla: Contains plasma cells, macrophages, and sinuses where lymph flows. 

• Afferent lymphatic vessels bring lymph into the node. 

• Efferent lymphatic vessel exits at the hilum. 

Functions: 

1. Filtration of lymph: Removes bacteria, viruses, and debris. 

2. Immune response: Lymphocytes detect and attack pathogens. 

3. Production of antibodies: By plasma cells (from B cells). 

4. Activation of lymphocytes: Both T and B cells are activated upon antigen presentation. 

Lymph nodes enlarge during infection due to increased immune cell activity. 

13. Describe heart with well-labelled diagram. Relate electrocardiogram (ECG) with it. 

The human heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs, and slightly to the left. It functions as a double pump to circulate blood throughout the body. 

Structure of the Heart: 

• Four Chambers: 

• Right atrium and Right ventricle 

• Left atrium and Left ventricle 

• Valves: 

• Tricuspid valve (between right atrium and ventricle) 

• Pulmonary valve (between right ventricle and pulmonary artery) 

• Mitral (bicuspid) valve (between left atrium and ventricle) 

• Aortic valve (between left ventricle and aorta) 

• Septum: Divides right and left sides of the heart. 

Flow of Blood: 

• Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via superior/inferior vena cava → Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs. 

• Oxygenated blood returns to left atrium via pulmonary veins → Left ventricle → Aorta → Body. 

ECG Relation: 

• P wave: Atrial depolarization (before atrial contraction) 

• QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization (before ventricular contraction) 

• T wave: Ventricular repolarization (ventricular relaxation) 

Thus, ECG reflects the electrical activity corresponding to the mechanical function of heart chambers. 

(A well-labeled diagram should show the heart chambers, valves, septum, and major vessels.) 

 

14. Explain the anatomy and physiology of vision. 

Anatomy of Eye (Visual organ): 

• Cornea: Transparent front part, allows light entry. 

• Aqueous humor: Fluid-filled space behind cornea. 

• Iris: Controls pupil size. 

• Lens: Focuses light onto retina. 

• Vitreous humor: Gel-like fluid maintaining eye shape. 

• Retina: Light-sensitive layer containing rods and cones. 

• Optic nerve: Transmits signals to brain. 

Physiology of Vision: 

1. Light Entry: Light enters through the cornea → pupil → lens. 

2. Refraction: Lens adjusts shape (accommodation) to focus light on retina. 

3. Phototransduction: 

1. Rods detect dim light and black/white vision. 

2. Cones detect bright light and color. 

4. Signal Transmission: Converted light signals are transmitted by retinal neurons → optic nerve → visual cortex in occipital lobe. 

This process allows us to perceive shape, color, and movement. 

 

15. Classify joints. Explain the structure of synovial joint. 

Classification of Joints: 

1. Fibrous joints: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures) 

2. Cartilaginous joints: Slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs) 

3. Synovial joints: Freely movable (e.g., knee, shoulder) 

Structure of Synovial Joint: 

• Articular cartilage: Covers bone ends, reduces friction. 

• Synovial cavity: Space filled with synovial fluid. 

• Synovial membrane: Produces synovial fluid for lubrication. 

• Joint capsule: Encloses joint, provides stability. 

• Ligaments: Connect bones, limit movement. 

• Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs reducing friction between structures. 

Types of Synovial Joints: 

• Hinge (elbow), Ball-and-socket (hip), Pivot (atlanto-axial), Saddle (thumb), Gliding (wrist), Condyloid (knuckles) 

Synovial joints allow smooth, controlled movements and are commonly involved in physical activities. 

16. Discuss the phenomenon of neuromuscular junction with the help of diagram. 

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialized synapse where a motor neuron communicates with a skeletal muscle fiber, enabling muscle contraction. 

Structure of NMJ: 

• Presynaptic terminal (axon terminal): Contains synaptic vesicles filled with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). 

• Synaptic cleft: Space between the neuron and muscle cell membrane. 

• Postsynaptic membrane (motor end plate): Part of the sarcolemma (muscle membrane) with ACh receptors. 

 

Mechanism of Action: 

1. Nerve Impulse Arrival: An action potential reaches the axon terminal. 

2. Calcium Influx: Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, causing calcium to enter the presynaptic terminal. 

3. Neurotransmitter Release: ACh vesicles fuse with the membrane and release ACh into the synaptic cleft. 

4. Receptor Binding: ACh binds to nicotinic receptors on the motor end plate. 

5. Muscle Action Potential: This opens Na⁺ channels → depolarization → muscle action potential. 

6. Contraction: Muscle fiber contracts. 

7. Termination: ACh is broken down by acetylcholinesterase, ending the signal. 

 

Diagram should include: motor neuron terminal, synaptic vesicles, synaptic cleft, motor end plate, ACh, receptors, and muscle fiber. 

 

17. What do you mean by anemia? Explain its various types. 

Anemia is a condition where the number of red blood cells (RBCs) or the amount of hemoglobin (Hb) is insufficient to meet the body’s oxygen demands. 

 

Common Symptoms: 

Fatigue, pallor, weakness, dizziness, shortness of breath. 

 

Types of Anemia: 

1. Iron Deficiency Anemia 

1. Most common. 

2. Caused by poor iron intake, blood loss. 

3. Characterized by microcytic, hypochromic RBCs. 

2. Megaloblastic Anemia 

1. Due to deficiency of vitamin B12 or folic acid. 

2. Causes enlarged, immature RBCs (megaloblasts). 

3. Hemolytic Anemia 

1. Due to increased destruction of RBCs. 

2. Causes include sickle cell disease, thalassemia, or autoimmune disorders. 

4. Aplastic Anemia 

1. Bone marrow failure to produce RBCs. 

2. Can be idiopathic or due to toxins/drugs. 

5. Sickle Cell Anemia 

1. Genetic disorder; abnormal hemoglobin causes RBCs to sickle. 

2. Leads to blockage of blood vessels and pain crises. 

 

Treatment depends on the type and cause, and may include iron or vitamin supplementation, blood transfusion, or bone marrow transplant. 

 

18. Write an elaborated note on structure and function of plasma membrane. (long version) 

The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that encloses the cell, maintaining its integrity and regulating the passage of substances in and out. 

 

Structure (Fluid Mosaic Model): 

• Phospholipid bilayer: Hydrophilic heads face outward; hydrophobic tails face inward. 

• Proteins: 

• Integral proteins span the membrane (e.g., channels, carriers). 

• Peripheral proteins are attached to the surface (e.g., enzymes). 

• Cholesterol: Maintains fluidity and stability. 

• Carbohydrates: Attached to proteins/lipids forming glycoproteins/glycolipids for cell recognition. 

 

Functions: 

1. Selective Permeability: Controls entry/exit of ions, nutrients, and waste. 

2. Transport: Via passive (diffusion, osmosis) or active (pumps) mechanisms. 

3. Cell Communication: Receptors bind to hormones and neurotransmitters. 

4. Signal Transduction: Converts extracellular signals into cellular responses. 

5. Cell Adhesion: Allows cells to form tissues. 

6. Protection and Compartmentalization: Maintains internal environment. 

19. Write a short note on cranial nerves with emphasis on their functions. 

The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and brainstem. They control various sensory and motor functions, primarily in the head and neck region. 

List of Cranial Nerves and Functions: 

1. Olfactory (I) – Sensory – Smell 

2. Optic (II) – Sensory – Vision 

3. Oculomotor (III) – Motor – Eye movement, pupil constriction 

4. Trochlear (IV) – Motor – Moves eyeball (superior oblique muscle) 

5. Trigeminal (V) – Mixed – Facial sensation, chewing 

6. Abducens (VI) – Motor – Moves eyeball (lateral rectus muscle) 

7. Facial (VII) – Mixed – Facial expressions, taste (anterior 2/3 tongue), salivation 

8. Vestibulocochlear (VIII) – Sensory – Hearing and balance 

9. Glossopharyngeal (IX) – Mixed – Taste (posterior 1/3 tongue), swallowing 

10. Vagus (X) – Mixed – Controls parasympathetic output to heart, lungs, digestive tract 

11. Accessory (XI) – Motor – Controls neck and shoulder muscles 

12. Hypoglossal (XII) – Motor – Tongue movements 

These nerves are essential for sensory perception (e.g., smell, sight, taste, hearing), motor control (e.g., eye movement, facial expression), and autonomic regulation (e.g., heart rate via vagus nerve). 

 

20. Classify joints. Write a short note on synovial joint. 

Classification of Joints: 

1. Fibrous joints (immovable) – e.g., sutures of the skull 

2. Cartilaginous joints (slightly movable) – e.g., intervertebral discs 

3. Synovial joints (freely movable) – e.g., knee, shoulder 

 

Synovial Joint – Structure & Features: 

• Articular cartilage: Covers bone ends; reduces friction 

• Joint (synovial) cavity: Space filled with synovial fluid 

• Synovial membrane: Lines joint capsule, produces synovial fluid 

• Fibrous capsule: Outer layer, provides support 

• Ligaments: Connect bone to bone, stabilizing the joint 

• Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs to reduce friction 

 

Types of Synovial Joints: 

• Hinge (elbow) 

• Ball-and-socket (shoulder) 

• Pivot (between C1 and C2 vertebrae) 

• Saddle (thumb) 

• Gliding (wrist bones) 

• Condyloid (knuckles) 

Synovial joints are crucial for voluntary movement and are the most mobile type of joints in the human body. 

 

21. Write about the mechanism of physiology of hearing. (alternate phrasing but unique) 

The physiology of hearing involves the conversion of sound waves into electrical signals interpreted by the brain. 

 

Mechanism of Hearing: 

1. Sound wave collection: 

1. The pinna (auricle) collects sound waves and channels them into the external auditory canal. 

2. Vibration transmission: 

1. Sound waves hit the tympanic membrane (eardrum) causing it to vibrate. 

2. Vibrations are transmitted through the ossicles: malleus → incus → stapes. 

3. Inner ear stimulation: 

1. The stapes transmits vibrations to the oval window of the cochlea. 

2. Vibrations create waves in the perilymph and endolymph fluids inside the cochlea. 

4. Hair cell activation: 

1. The waves stimulate hair cells in the organ of Corti (basilar membrane). 

2. Hair cells convert mechanical energy into electrical impulses. 

5. Signal transmission: 

1. Electrical signals travel via the auditory (cochlear) nerve to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain. 

 

This precise and coordinated mechanism allows humans to perceive sound intensity, pitch, and direction. 

22. Write a note on disorders related to heart. 

The heart is susceptible to several disorders that can significantly impact circulation and overall health. Common cardiovascular disorders include: 

1. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): 

• Caused by atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in coronary arteries). 

• Reduces blood flow to the heart muscle. 

• May cause angina (chest pain) or myocardial infarction (heart attack). 

2. Heart Failure: 

• Inability of the heart to pump blood efficiently. 

• May result from hypertension, valve disorders, or past heart attacks. 

• Symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. 

3. Arrhythmias: 

• Abnormal heart rhythms due to electrical conduction defects. 

• Types include bradycardia, tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, etc. 

• Can cause dizziness, fainting, or even sudden cardiac arrest. 

4. Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): 

• Increases cardiac workload. 

• Long-term effects include heart failure, stroke, and kidney damage. 

5. Valvular Heart Diseases: 

• Caused by stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leakage) of heart valves. 

• Affects blood flow efficiency within heart chambers. 

6. Congenital Heart Defects: 

• Structural abnormalities present from birth (e.g., septal defects). 

• May require surgical correction. 

Management includes medications (e.g., beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors), lifestyle changes, and surgical interventions (e.g., angioplasty, pacemakers). 

 

23. Discuss in detail about lymph circulation and functions of lymphatic system. 

The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, nodes, and organs that helps maintain fluid balance, supports immune function, and assists in fat absorption. 

Lymph Circulation: 

1. Formation of Lymph: 

1. Plasma leaks from blood capillaries into tissues forming interstitial fluid. 

2. Excess fluid enters lymph capillaries → now called lymph. 

2. Lymphatic Vessels: 

1. Lymph capillaries join to form larger vessels. 

2. Valves prevent backflow, ensuring unidirectional flow. 

3. Lymph Nodes: 

1. Located along vessels; filter lymph. 

2. Contain lymphocytes and macrophages for immune surveillance. 

4. Drainage into Circulation: 

1. Lymph drains into thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, which empty into subclavian veins. 

 

Functions of Lymphatic System: 

• Fluid Balance: Returns excess interstitial fluid to blood. 

• Immune Defense: Filters pathogens; produces lymphocytes. 

• Absorption of Fats: Specialized lymphatics (lacteals) absorb lipids in intestines. 

• Transport of Proteins: Returns leaked plasma proteins to circulation. 

This system is vital for preventing edema, fighting infections, and maintaining circulatory balance. 

 

24. Discuss about the structure and functions of lymph node. (distinct from lymph circulation) 

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped lymphatic organs that filter lymph and play a critical role in immune defense. 

Structure of a Lymph Node: 

• Capsule: Outer connective tissue layer. 

• Cortex: 

• Contains lymphoid follicles with germinal centers rich in B-lymphocytes. 

• Outer region also has T-lymphocytes. 

• Medulla: 

• Contains medullary cords and sinuses where lymph flows. 

• Afferent lymphatic vessels: Carry lymph into the node. 

• Efferent lymphatic vessels: Carry filtered lymph out at the hilum. 

 

Functions of Lymph Nodes: 

1. Filtration: Remove debris, pathogens, and cancer cells from lymph. 

2. Immune Surveillance: Detect antigens and activate B and T lymphocytes. 

3. Lymphocyte Production: Support immune response by proliferating immune cells. 

4. Phagocytosis: Macrophages in nodes engulf and destroy harmful particles. 

Lymph nodes are found in clusters in regions like the neck, armpits, abdomen, and groin. Their swelling often indicates infection or immune activity. 

 

 

 

Human Anatomy And Physiology Ist Long Question Answer [10 Marks] 

1. Classify skeletal system & discuss the structure and function of vertebral column. 

Classification of Skeletal System: 

The human skeletal system is broadly classified into two parts: 

1. Axial Skeleton: 

1. Consists of 80 bones. 

2. Includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (ribs and sternum). 

3. Functions to support and protect the organs of the head, neck, and trunk. 

2. Appendicular Skeleton: 

1. Consists of 126 bones. 

2. Includes the pectoral girdles, upper limbs, pelvic girdles, and lower limbs. 

3. Enables movement and supports appendages. 

 

Structure of Vertebral Column: 

The vertebral column, also called the spine or backbone, is a part of the axial skeleton and consists of 33 vertebrae in a column extending from the skull to the pelvis. 

Vertebral Division: 

1. Cervical (7) – Neck region (C1 to C7) 

2. Thoracic (12) – Chest region, articulates with ribs 

3. Lumbar (5) – Lower back, supports body weight 

4. Sacral (5 fused) – Form sacrum, part of the pelvis 

5. Coccygeal (4 fused) – Form coccyx or tailbone 

Typical Vertebra Structure: 

• Body: Weight-bearing portion 

• Vertebral arch: Forms spinal canal 

• Spinous & transverse processes: Muscle attachments 

• Vertebral foramen: Houses spinal cord 

• Articular processes: Connect with adjacent vertebrae 

 

Curvatures of the Vertebral Column: 

1. Cervical and Lumbar Curves: Convex anteriorly (lordotic) 

2. Thoracic and Sacral Curves: Concave anteriorly (kyphotic) 

These curvatures provide shock absorption and balance. 

 

Functions of Vertebral Column: 

• Support: Supports the skull and trunk, enabling upright posture. 

• Protection: Protects the spinal cord within the vertebral canal. 

• Movement: Provides flexibility and mobility to the torso. 

• Attachment: Serves as an attachment point for ribs, muscles, and ligaments. 

• Shock Absorption: Intervertebral discs act as cushions between vertebrae. 

 

The vertebral column is a crucial structural and functional unit of the human body, balancing stability with mobility, and playing a vital role in protection and postural support. 

2. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the heart. Explain in detail the cardiac cycle. 

Diagram of Human Heart: 

Below is a simplified structure of the heart (please redraw in your exam neatly): 

       Superior Vena Cava        Aorta 
                ↓                   ↑ 
       Right Atrium       ←      Left Atrium 
          ↓                        ↓ 
       Tricuspid Valve     ←   Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve 
          ↓                        ↓ 
       Right Ventricle     →     Left Ventricle 
          ↓                        ↓ 
    Pulmonary Artery     ←     Pulmonary Vein 
          ↓                        ↑ 
      To Lungs            ←     From Lungs 
 

Label parts: Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle, tricuspid valve, bicuspid valve, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, aorta, vena cava. 

 

Cardiac Cycle: 

The cardiac cycle is a sequence of events that occur from the beginning of one heartbeat to the next. It includes systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of the atria and ventricles. 

Duration: ~0.8 seconds (at 75 beats/min) 

 

Phases of Cardiac Cycle: 

1. Atrial Systole (0.1 sec): 

1. Atria contract → blood flows into ventricles via open AV valves (tricuspid and mitral). 

2. Semilunar valves (aortic & pulmonary) remain closed. 

2. Ventricular Systole (0.3 sec): 

1. Isovolumetric Contraction Phase: 

1. Ventricles contract with all valves closed → pressure builds up. 

2. Ejection Phase: 

1. When pressure exceeds that in arteries, semilunar valves open, and blood is ejected into the aorta and pulmonary artery. 

3. Ventricular Diastole (0.4 sec): 

1. Isovolumetric Relaxation: 

1. Ventricles relax; semilunar valves close to prevent backflow. 

2. Ventricular Filling: 

1. AV valves open again → blood flows passively from atria to ventricles. 

2. Atria are also in diastole and fill with blood from veins. 

 

Heart Sounds: 

• First heart sound (LUB): Closure of AV valves. 

• Second heart sound (DUB): Closure of semilunar valves. 

 

Significance: 

• Ensures unidirectional blood flow. 

• Synchronizes oxygenation and nutrient delivery. 

• Maintains blood pressure and cardiac output. 

3. Define blood coagulation. Write in detail about different stages involved in blood coagulation. 

Definition of Blood Coagulation: 

Blood coagulation (also known as clotting) is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a clot to stop bleeding (hemostasis). It is a complex process involving platelets, clotting factors, calcium ions, and enzymes. 

 

Stages of Blood Coagulation: 

Blood coagulation occurs in three main stages: 

 

1. Formation of Prothrombin Activator: 

This is the initial step in coagulation, triggered by damage to the blood vessel wall. It occurs via two pathways: 

• Intrinsic Pathway: 

• Initiated by trauma inside the blood vessel. 

• Involves clotting factors XII, XI, IX, VIII. 

• Slower but more complete. 

• Extrinsic Pathway: 

• Triggered by external trauma. 

• Involves tissue factor (factor III) and factor VII. 

• Faster response. 

Both pathways lead to the formation of prothrombin activator (prothrombinase). 

 

2. Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin: 

• Prothrombin (Factor II) is an inactive plasma protein. 

• In presence of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and prothrombin activator, it is converted into active thrombin (enzyme). 

Reaction: 
Prothrombin → (Prothrombinase + Ca²⁺) → Thrombin 

 

3. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin: 

• Fibrinogen (Factor I) is a soluble plasma protein. 

• Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which forms a mesh of threads. 

Reaction: 
Fibrinogen → (Thrombin) → Fibrin 

• Fibrin threads form a stable clot, trapping red blood cells and platelets. 

• Factor XIII (fibrin-stabilizing factor) strengthens the fibrin mesh. 

 

Clot Retraction and Repair: 

• After clot formation, the clot contracts (clot retraction), pulling the edges of the wound together. 

• Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates tissue repair. 

 

Fibrinolysis (Clot Removal): 

• Once healing begins, plasminogen is converted into plasmin, which dissolves the clot. 

 

Clinical Significance: 

• Excess clotting: Can lead to thrombosis, stroke, heart attack. 

• Impaired clotting: Seen in hemophilia, liver disease, or vitamin K deficiency. 

4. Classify skeletal system & discuss the structure and function of vertebral column. 

(Note: This is a repeated question from Question 1. However, I’ll present it with fresh wording for revision purposes.) 

 

Classification of Skeletal System: 

The human skeletal system is the internal framework of the body and consists of 206 bones. It is divided into two main parts: 

1. Axial Skeleton (80 bones): 

• Includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. 

• Provides protection to vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. 

2. Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones): 

• Includes pectoral girdles, pelvic girdle, and bones of the limbs (upper and lower). 

• Responsible for body movement and locomotion. 

 

Structure of Vertebral Column: 

The vertebral column (spine or backbone) is a central feature of the axial skeleton. It is a flexible, curved structure composed of 33 vertebrae, divided into five regions: 

Region	Number of Vertebrae	Function
Cervical	7	Supports head, allows neck motion
Thoracic	12	Attaches to ribs, supports chest
Lumbar	5	Bears body weight
Sacral	5 (fused)	Forms part of pelvis
Coccygeal	4 (fused)	Remnant of tailbone

 

Structure of a Typical Vertebra: 

• Body (centrum): Anterior part that bears weight. 

• Vertebral foramen: Central hole for spinal cord. 

• Spinous process: Posterior projection for muscle attachment. 

• Transverse processes: Side projections for ligaments and muscles. 

• Articular processes: For joint articulation with adjacent vertebrae. 

 

Curvatures of the Vertebral Column: 

• Primary curves (thoracic and sacral): Present at birth. 

• Secondary curves (cervical and lumbar): Develop after birth for balance and posture. 

These curvatures help absorb shock and support upright posture. 

 

Functions of Vertebral Column: 

1. Protection: Encases and protects the spinal cord. 

2. Support: Provides axial support to the body and head. 

3. Flexibility & Movement: Enables bending, twisting, and turning of the torso. 

4. Attachment Point: For ribs, pelvis, and back muscles. 

5. Weight Transmission: Transfers body weight from the upper body to the lower limbs. 

 

✅ The vertebral column is crucial for maintaining posture, protecting the spinal cord, and allowing a wide range of movements. 

5. Define blood coagulation. Write in detail about different stages involved in blood coagulation. 

(Note: This is a repeat of Question 3, but here's a refined version with slight variation in presentation for clarity and revision.) 

 

Definition of Blood Coagulation: 

Blood coagulation is the physiological process by which liquid blood transforms into a semi-solid clot, preventing excessive blood loss after vascular injury. It is a part of hemostasis and involves platelets, clotting proteins, calcium ions, and vascular endothelium. 

 

Stages of Blood Coagulation: 

The coagulation cascade occurs in three major stages: 

 

1. Formation of Prothrombin Activator (Initiation Phase): 

This stage occurs through two pathways: 

• Extrinsic Pathway: 

• Triggered by external injury. 

• Involves release of tissue factor (factor III) and activation of factor VII. 

• Fast-acting, occurs within seconds. 

• Intrinsic Pathway: 

• Initiated by damage inside the blood vessel. 

• Involves sequential activation of factors XII, XI, IX, and VIII. 

• Slower but amplifies the clotting response. 

Common Pathway: 

• Both pathways converge to activate factor X, which combines with factor V, calcium (Ca²⁺), and phospholipids to form prothrombin activator (prothrombinase). 

 

2. Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin: 

• Prothrombin (factor II) is an inactive plasma protein. 

• Prothrombin activator converts it into thrombin, an active enzyme. 

Reaction: 
Prothrombin → (Prothrombinase + Ca²⁺) → Thrombin 

 

3. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin: 

• Thrombin acts on fibrinogen (factor I), converting it into insoluble fibrin threads. 

• These fibrin threads form a mesh that traps blood cells and forms the clot. 

• Factor XIII (fibrin-stabilizing factor) cross-links the fibrin to strengthen the clot. 

 

Additional Events: 

• Clot Retraction: Platelets contract to shrink the clot and pull the wound edges together. 

• Fibrinolysis: Once healing begins, plasmin dissolves the fibrin mesh, removing the clot. 

 

Clinical Importance: 

• Excess clotting: Can lead to thrombosis, stroke, or heart attack. 

• Insufficient clotting: Can result in bleeding disorders like hemophilia. 

6. Draw a well-labelled diagram of a cell and explain transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane. 

 

Well-Labelled Diagram of a Cell: 

(Please redraw this neatly in your exam) 

                 ┌────────────────────────────┐ 
                  │        Nucleus             │ 
                  │    ┌────────────┐          │ 
                  │    │ Nucleolus  │          │ 
                  │    └────────────┘          │ 
                  └────────────────────────────┘ 
    Mitochondria       Endoplasmic Reticulum       Ribosomes 
         ⊙                       ≋≋≋≋≋≋≋              ●●● 
      Golgi Apparatus        Plasma Membrane        Cytoplasm 
             

Labels to include: Plasma membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth & rough), ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, cytoplasm, lysosomes, centrioles. 

 

Transport Mechanisms Across Plasma Membrane: 

The plasma membrane is semipermeable, allowing selective movement of substances in and out of the cell. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates. 

 

I. Passive Transport: 

• No energy (ATP) required. 

• Movement occurs down the concentration gradient (high → low). 

1. Simple Diffusion: 

1. Small, non-polar molecules (e.g., O₂, CO₂) pass directly through the lipid bilayer. 

2. Facilitated Diffusion: 

1. Transport proteins (channels or carriers) help move larger or polar molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids). 

3. Osmosis: 

1. Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from low solute to high solute concentration. 

 

II. Active Transport: 

• Requires energy (ATP). 

• Molecules move against the concentration gradient (low → high). 

1. Primary Active Transport: 

1. Sodium-potassium pump (Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase): Moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ into the cell. 

2. Secondary Active Transport: 

1. Uses energy stored in ionic gradients (e.g., glucose-sodium symport). 

 

III. Bulk Transport (Vesicular Transport): 

1. Endocytosis: 

1. Cell engulfs substances via vesicle formation. 

1. Phagocytosis: “Cell eating” – solid particles. 

2. Pinocytosis: “Cell drinking” – fluid droplets. 

3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Specific ligand-receptor interaction. 

2. Exocytosis: 

1. Vesicles fuse with membrane to release substances outside the cell (e.g., hormones, enzymes). 

 

Conclusion: 

Transport across the plasma membrane is essential for maintaining cell homeostasis, nutrient uptake, waste removal, and communication. 

7. Discuss cell with well-labelled diagram. Explain its organelles in detail. 

 

Well-Labelled Diagram of a Typical Animal Cell: 

(Please redraw in your notebook or exam with proper labels) 

 ┌────────────────────────────────────────────┐ 
  │                   CELL                     │ 
  │ ┌─────────────┐   ┌──────────────┐         │ 
  │ │  Nucleus    │   │ Mitochondria │         │ 
  │ │  (Nucleolus)│   └──────────────┘         │ 
  │ └─────────────┘   ┌──────────────┐         │ 
  │  Rough ER          Golgi Apparatus         │ 
  │  Smooth ER         Ribosomes                │ 
  │  Cytoplasm          Plasma Membrane         │ 
  │  Lysosome           Centriole               │ 
  └────────────────────────────────────────────┘ 
 

 

Explanation of Major Cell Organelles: 

1. Plasma Membrane: 

1. Outer boundary of the cell. 

2. Made of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. 

3. Controls movement of substances in/out of the cell (selective permeability). 

2. Cytoplasm: 

1. Jelly-like fluid (cytosol) where organelles are suspended. 

2. Site of many metabolic reactions. 

3. Nucleus: 

1. Control center of the cell containing DNA. 

2. Surrounded by a nuclear envelope with pores. 

3. Contains nucleolus, which synthesizes rRNA and ribosomes. 

4. Mitochondria: 

1. Known as the “powerhouse of the cell.” 

2. Site of aerobic respiration (ATP production). 

3. Has its own DNA. 

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): 

1. Rough ER: Has ribosomes; synthesizes proteins. 

2. Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids and detoxifies drugs. 

6. Ribosomes: 

1. Site of protein synthesis. 

2. Found either free in cytoplasm or attached to Rough ER. 

7. Golgi Apparatus: 

1. Stack of flattened sacs. 

2. Modifies, packages, and ships proteins and lipids to their destinations. 

8. Lysosomes: 

1. Contain digestive enzymes. 

2. Break down waste, damaged organelles, and pathogens (autolysis/autophagy). 

9. Peroxisomes: 

1. Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances (e.g., hydrogen peroxide). 

10. Centrioles: 

• Found only in animal cells. 

• Help in cell division by organizing spindle fibers. 

11. Cytoskeleton: 

• Network of protein filaments (microtubules, actin). 

• Maintains cell shape, enables movement, and intracellular transport. 

 

Conclusion: 

Each organelle in the cell has a specific structure and function, contributing to the overall functioning and survival of the cell. Understanding the cell is fundamental to human physiology and pharmaceutical sciences. 

 

✅ The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life, and its organelles work together to maintain cellular homeostasis. 

8. Illustrate hemostasis. Discuss the various pathways of blood coagulation. 

 

Definition of Hemostasis: 

Hemostasis is the process by which the body prevents and stops bleeding, or hemorrhage, following vascular injury. It involves a complex interaction between the vascular system, platelets, and coagulation factors to form a stable blood clot. 

Hemostasis occurs in three main stages: 

 

Stages of Hemostasis: 

1. Vascular Spasm (Vasoconstriction): 

• Immediate response to blood vessel injury. 

• Smooth muscles in the vessel wall contract to reduce blood flow and limit blood loss. 

2. Platelet Plug Formation (Primary Hemostasis): 

• Platelets adhere to the exposed collagen fibers of the damaged vessel. 

• Platelets become activated and release chemicals like ADP, serotonin, and thromboxane A₂. 

• Activated platelets stick together (aggregation) to form a temporary plug. 

3. Coagulation Cascade (Secondary Hemostasis): 

• Series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. 

• Fibrin stabilizes the platelet plug to form a stable clot. 

 

Pathways of Blood Coagulation: 

The coagulation cascade has three interconnected pathways: 

 

A. Extrinsic Pathway (Tissue Factor Pathway): 

• Activated by external trauma to the blood vessel. 

• Involves tissue factor (factor III) and factor VII. 

• Rapid response. 

Sequence: 

• Tissue factor (III) + Factor VII → Factor VIIa 

• Factor VIIa + Ca²⁺ → Activates Factor X 

 

B. Intrinsic Pathway (Contact Activation Pathway): 

• Initiated by damage inside the vessel. 

• Slower but amplifies the clotting process. 

Sequence: 

• Activation of Factor XII → XI → IX 

• Factor IXa + Factor VIIIa + Ca²⁺ → Activates Factor X 

 

C. Common Pathway: 

• Both pathways converge here. 

Sequence: 

• Activated Factor X (Xa) + Factor V + Ca²⁺ → Prothrombinase 

• Prothrombinase converts Prothrombin (II) → Thrombin 

• Thrombin converts Fibrinogen (I) → Fibrin 

• Fibrin + Factor XIII → Stable fibrin clot 

 

Fibrinolysis (Clot Removal): 

Once healing begins, plasminogen is activated to plasmin, which dissolves the fibrin clot, restoring normal blood flow. 

 

Clinical Significance: 

• Disorders: Hemophilia (lack of clotting factors), thrombosis (excess clotting), DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation). 

• Essential for wound healing and preventing fatal blood loss. 

 

✅ Hemostasis is a life-saving defense mechanism. The balance between clot formation and dissolution is vital for maintaining vascular integrity. 

9. Explain the structural and functional difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. 

 

Introduction: 

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) that controls involuntary activities like heart rate, digestion, respiration, etc. It has two main divisions: 

1. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) 

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) 

Both systems function antagonistically to maintain homeostasis. 

 

Structural Differences: 

Feature	Sympathetic Division	Parasympathetic Division
Origin	Thoracolumbar (T1–L2 spinal segments)	Craniosacral (Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X and S2–S4)
Location of Ganglia	Near the spinal cord (paravertebral chain)	Near or within target organs
Length of Preganglionic Fibers	Short	Long
Length of Postganglionic Fibers	Long	Short
Neurotransmitters	Preganglionic: ACh  Postganglionic: Noradrenaline (NE) (mainly)	Both pre- and postganglionic: Acetylcholine (ACh)

 

Functional Differences: 

Function	Sympathetic Division	Parasympathetic Division
General Action	"Fight or Flight"	"Rest and Digest"
Heart Rate	Increases	Decreases
Pupil	Dilates (mydriasis)	Constricts (miosis)
Bronchi	Dilates	Constricts
Digestive Activity	Decreases (inhibits peristalsis)	Increases (stimulates digestion)
Salivation	Decreases	Increases
Urinary Bladder	Relaxes (inhibits urination)	Contracts (promotes urination)
Sweat Glands	Stimulated	No significant effect
Adrenal Medulla	Stimulated to release adrenaline	No effect

 

Conclusion: 

The sympathetic system prepares the body for emergency or stressful situations, while the parasympathetic system promotes maintenance and conservation of energy. Together, they regulate vital involuntary body functions and ensure balance through reciprocal innervation. 

 

✅ A proper understanding of both divisions is crucial in pharmacology and physiology, especially for targeting autonomic drugs. 

10. Define hemostasis. Explain in detail the process of blood coagulation with emphasis on extrinsic and intrinsic pathways along with the clotting factors. 

 

Definition of Hemostasis: 

Hemostasis is the physiological process by which bleeding is stopped after injury to a blood vessel. It involves a tightly regulated interaction of blood vessels, platelets, and clotting factors to prevent blood loss and initiate repair. 

 

Stages of Hemostasis: 

1. Vascular Spasm: 
   Immediate constriction of damaged blood vessels to reduce blood flow. 

2. Platelet Plug Formation (Primary Hemostasis): 
   Platelets adhere to exposed collagen, become activated, release chemicals, and aggregate to form a temporary plug. 

3. Coagulation (Secondary Hemostasis): 
   Involves a cascade of enzymatic reactions that convert fibrinogen into fibrin, forming a stable blood clot. 

 

Pathways of Blood Coagulation: 

The coagulation cascade is divided into: 

 

I. Extrinsic Pathway (Tissue Factor Pathway): 

• Initiated by external trauma that exposes tissue factor (Factor III). 

• Involves Factor VII. 

Steps: 

• Tissue Factor (III) binds with Factor VII → Activates Factor VIIa 

• Factor VIIa + Ca²⁺ → Activates Factor X 

 

II. Intrinsic Pathway (Contact Activation Pathway): 

• Triggered by internal damage to the blood vessel. 

• Involves Factors XII, XI, IX, and VIII. 

Steps: 

• Factor XII → XIIa (activated by contact with collagen) 

• XIIa activates XI → XIa 

• XIa activates IX → IXa 

• IXa + VIIIa + Ca²⁺ → Activates Factor X 

 

III. Common Pathway: 

• Both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge at Factor X. 

Steps: 

• Activated Factor X (Xa) + Factor V + Ca²⁺ → Prothrombinase 

• Prothrombinase converts Prothrombin (II) → Thrombin 

• Thrombin converts Fibrinogen (I) → Fibrin 

• Fibrin + Factor XIII → Cross-linked stable clot 

 

Clotting Factors Overview: 

Factor Number	Name
I	Fibrinogen
II	Prothrombin
III	Tissue Factor (Thromboplastin)
IV	Calcium (Ca²⁺)
V	Labile Factor
VII	Stable Factor
VIII	Anti-hemophilic Factor A
IX	Anti-hemophilic Factor B
X	Stuart-Prower Factor
XI	Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent
XII	Hageman Factor
XIII	Fibrin-Stabilizing Factor

 

Conclusion: 

Hemostasis is crucial to survival, balancing the need to prevent blood loss while avoiding excessive clotting. Disruption in any part of this cascade can lead to conditions such as hemophilia, thrombosis, or bleeding disorders. 

 

✅ A clear understanding of both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, along with clotting factors, is essential for medical and pharmaceutical applications. 

11. Discuss the anatomy and physiology of the eye with diagram. 

 

Anatomy of the Eye (Well-labelled diagram): 

       ______________________ 
       /                      \ 
    Cornea                Sclera 
       \                    / 
        \___Anterior Chamber___ 
             |      Iris     | 
             |     Pupil     | 
        Lens--------->        Retina 
             |      Ciliary Body 
        Vitreous Humor 
              \     Optic Nerve 
               \___Macula, Fovea 
 

(Please draw a neat and labeled diagram in your notebook or exam sheet.) 

 

Anatomy of the Eye: 

1. Fibrous Tunic (Outer Layer): 

1. Cornea: Transparent, curved front part that refracts light. 

2. Sclera: White, opaque part providing protection and shape. 

2. Vascular Tunic (Middle Layer): 

1. Iris: Colored part; controls pupil size to regulate light entry. 

2. Ciliary Body: Produces aqueous humor and controls lens shape. 

3. Choroid: Contains blood vessels that nourish the retina. 

3. Nervous Tunic (Inner Layer): 

1. Retina: Contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones); converts light into neural signals. 

2. Macula and Fovea Centralis: Responsible for sharp central vision. 

3. Optic Disc (Blind Spot): No photoreceptors; optic nerve exits here. 

 

Internal Components: 

• Lens: Transparent structure that focuses light on the retina. 

• Aqueous Humor: Fluid in anterior chamber; maintains intraocular pressure. 

• Vitreous Humor: Gel-like substance in posterior chamber; maintains eye shape. 

 

Photoreceptor Cells: 

• Rods: Sensitive to dim light; responsible for night vision (scotopic vision). 

• Cones: Detect color and bright light; concentrated in the fovea (photopic vision). 

 

Physiology of Vision: 

1. Light Entry: Light enters the eye through the cornea and passes through aqueous humor, pupil, lens, and vitreous humor to reach the retina. 

2. Focusing: The lens changes shape (accommodation) to focus light precisely on the retina depending on distance. 

3. Phototransduction: 

1. Light hits rods and cones → triggers chemical changes. 

2. These changes generate electrical signals. 

4. Signal Transmission: 

1. Signals pass through bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells. 

2. Axons of ganglion cells form the optic nerve. 

5. Processing in Brain: 

1. The optic nerve transmits impulses to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe, where the image is interpreted. 

 

Conclusion: 

The eye is a complex and highly specialized organ responsible for vision. Proper function of its anatomical parts is essential for light reception, focusing, image formation, and interpretation. 

 

✅ A deep understanding of the eye’s anatomy and physiology is crucial in pharmacology, ophthalmology, and systemic disease management. 

12. Discuss in detail the active transport process across plasma membrane. 

 

Introduction: 

Active transport is the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane from a region of lower concentration to higher concentration using energy (ATP). This process is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and is carried out by specific membrane proteins. 

 

Types of Active Transport: 

1. Primary Active Transport: 

• Involves direct use of ATP to transport molecules. 

• A classic example is the Sodium-Potassium (Na⁺/K⁺) pump. 

Mechanism: 

• 3 Na⁺ ions are pumped out of the cell. 

• 2 K⁺ ions are pumped into the cell. 

• Uses 1 molecule of ATP. 

This maintains: 

• Higher concentration of Na⁺ outside and K⁺ inside. 

• Essential for nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and osmotic balance. 

 

2. Secondary Active Transport (Cotransport): 

• Utilizes the electrochemical gradient created by primary active transport to move other substances. 

• No direct use of ATP, but depends on energy from primary transport. 

Types: 

• Symport: Both substances move in the same direction (e.g., Na⁺-glucose cotransporter). 

• Antiport: Substances move in opposite directions (e.g., Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger). 

 

Proteins Involved: 

1. Carrier Proteins (Pumps): Bind specific molecules and undergo conformational changes to transport them. 

2. ATPases: Enzyme-linked transporters that hydrolyze ATP (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, Ca²⁺-ATPase). 

 

Importance of Active Transport: 

• Maintains ion gradients essential for nerve signaling. 

• Facilitates nutrient absorption in the intestines and kidneys. 

• Regulates pH and osmotic balance. 

• Helps in excretion of waste products. 

• Crucial for cell volume maintenance and membrane potential. 

 

Examples: 

Transport System	Location	Function
Na⁺/K⁺ Pump	All animal cells	Maintains electrochemical gradient
H⁺/K⁺ ATPase	Stomach lining	Acid secretion
Ca²⁺ ATPase	Sarcoplasmic reticulum (muscles)	Muscle relaxation
Na⁺/glucose symporter	Intestinal epithelium	Glucose absorption

 

Conclusion: 

Active transport is vital for energy-dependent cellular processes. It allows cells to maintain internal environments distinct from the external surroundings, a critical feature of life. 

 

✅ Understanding active transport mechanisms is essential in drug delivery, pharmacokinetics, and treatment of various disorders like hypertension, diabetes, and neurological diseases. 

13. Classify skeletal system & discuss the structure and functions of vertebral column. 

 

Classification of Skeletal System: 

The human skeletal system is broadly divided into: 

1. Axial Skeleton (80 bones): 

1. Skull 

2. Vertebral column 

3. Rib cage 

4. Sternum 

2. Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones): 

1. Upper limbs (arms, hands) 

2. Lower limbs (legs, feet) 

3. Pectoral girdle (shoulder) 

4. Pelvic girdle (hip) 

 

Vertebral Column: 

Also known as the spine or backbone, the vertebral column is a flexible, segmented structure that extends from the skull to the pelvis. 

Structure of Vertebral Column: 

It consists of 33 vertebrae grouped into 5 regions: 

Region	No. of Vertebrae	Characteristics
Cervical	7 (C1–C7)	Smallest; C1 (Atlas) & C2 (Axis) support head
Thoracic	12 (T1–T12)	Articulate with ribs
Lumbar	5 (L1–L5)	Largest; support weight of upper body
Sacral	5 (fused into sacrum)	Fused to form back of pelvic cavity
Coccygeal	4 (fused into coccyx)	Tailbone; vestigial structure

Total = 33 vertebrae, but usually 26 bones in adults due to fusion. 

 

Curvatures of Vertebral Column: 

• Cervical & Lumbar Curves: Convex anteriorly 

• Thoracic & Sacral Curves: Concave anteriorly 
  These curvatures provide balance and flexibility. 

 

Parts of a Typical Vertebra: 

1. Body (Centrum): Weight-bearing anterior portion 

2. Vertebral Arch: Forms posterior part of the vertebral foramen 

3. Vertebral Foramen: Canal for spinal cord 

4. Transverse & Spinous Processes: Sites for muscle attachment 

5. Articular Processes: Connect adjacent vertebrae 

 

Functions of Vertebral Column: 

1. Support: 

1. Bears the weight of the head and trunk 

2. Provides axis for body posture 

2. Protection: 

1. Encloses and protects the spinal cord within vertebral canal 

3. Movement: 

1. Permits bending, twisting, and rotation 

2. Acts as a flexible support structure 

4. Attachment: 

1. Serves as attachment for ribs, muscles, and ligaments 

5. Shock Absorption: 

1. Intervertebral discs between vertebrae act as cushions 

 

Conclusion: 

The vertebral column is a crucial component of the axial skeleton that provides support, protection, and mobility to the human body. Its complex structure allows it to perform multiple mechanical and protective functions essential for life. 

 

✅ A thorough understanding of the vertebral column helps in diagnosing spinal disorders and designing orthopedic and neurological treatments. 

14. Draw a neat labelled diagram of the heart. Explain in detail the cardiac cycle. 

 

Diagram of Human Heart: 

Please refer to your textbook or draw the following key structures in your diagram: 

• Right atrium 

• Right ventricle 

• Left atrium 

• Left ventricle 

• Tricuspid valve 

• Bicuspid (mitral) valve 

• Pulmonary artery 

• Pulmonary vein 

• Aorta 

• Superior & inferior vena cava 

• Septum 

• Chordae tendineae and papillary muscles 

(Ensure all chambers, valves, and major vessels are clearly labelled.) 

 

Cardiac Cycle: 

The cardiac cycle is the complete sequence of events in the heart during one heartbeat, including contraction and relaxation of both atria and ventricles. 

Duration of one cardiac cycle: 

• At an average heart rate of 75 beats/min → duration is 0.8 seconds. 

 

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle: 

Phase	Duration	Events
1. Atrial Systole	0.1 sec	Atria contract → blood flows into ventricles
2. Ventricular Systole	0.3 sec	Ventricles contract → AV valves close, SL valves open
3. Complete Diastole	0.4 sec	All chambers relax → blood flows into atria & ventricles

 

Detailed Events: 

1. Atrial Systole (0.1 sec): 

1. SA node fires → atrial contraction 

2. Pushes remaining 30% of blood into ventricles 

3. AV valves (tricuspid and mitral) are open 

4. Semilunar valves closed 

2. Ventricular Systole (0.3 sec): 

1. AV valves close (producing first heart sound – "LUB") 

2. Ventricular pressure rises → SL valves (aortic & pulmonary) open 

3. Blood is ejected into aorta and pulmonary artery 

3. Diastole (0.4 sec): 

1. SL valves close (producing second heart sound – "DUB") 

2. All chambers are relaxed 

3. Blood flows passively into atria and ventricles 

 

Important Terms: 

• End Diastolic Volume (EDV): Volume of blood in ventricles before contraction (~120 mL) 

• End Systolic Volume (ESV): Volume after contraction (~50 mL) 

• Stroke Volume (SV): EDV − ESV ≈ 70 mL/beat 

• Cardiac Output (CO): SV × Heart Rate (HR) 
  → CO = 70 mL × 75 bpm = 5250 mL/min or ~5 L/min 

 

Conclusion: 

The cardiac cycle ensures efficient blood circulation through the lungs and body. Understanding its phases helps explain heart sounds, pulse, blood pressure, and the basis for many cardiovascular diseases. 

 

✅ Mastery of the cardiac cycle is essential for interpreting ECGs, diagnosing arrhythmias, and understanding pharmacologic effects on the heart. 

15. Define blood coagulation. Write in detail about different stages involved in blood coagulation. 

 

Definition: 

Blood coagulation (also called clotting) is the physiological process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot to prevent excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. 

 

Importance: 

• Prevents blood loss from damaged vessels. 

• Protects the body from infection and allows tissue repair. 

• A key component of hemostasis (the process of stopping bleeding). 

 

Stages of Blood Coagulation: 

Blood coagulation involves a cascade of enzymatic reactions divided into three major stages: 

 

1. Formation of Prothrombin Activator (Initiation Phase): 

This occurs through two pathways: 

A. Intrinsic Pathway: 

• Triggered by trauma inside the vascular system (e.g., damaged endothelium). 

• Involves clotting factors XII, XI, IX, VIII. 

• Slower but more complex. 

B. Extrinsic Pathway: 

• Triggered by external trauma (e.g., cut or injury). 

• Involves release of tissue factor (TF) or thromboplastin. 

• Activates factor VII, which activates X. 

• Faster than intrinsic pathway. 

Both pathways converge at Factor X, which forms prothrombin activator (Factor Xa). 

 

2. Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin: 

• Prothrombin (Factor II) is a plasma protein synthesized in the liver. 

• Activated Factor Xa, along with Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and Factor V, converts Prothrombin → Thrombin. 

 

3. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin: 

• Thrombin acts on Fibrinogen (Factor I) to form Fibrin monomers. 

• Fibrin monomers polymerize into Fibrin threads, which form the structural basis of a clot. 

• Factor XIII (fibrin-stabilizing factor) strengthens and cross-links the fibrin mesh. 

 

Clot Retraction and Repair: 

• Platelets contract, pulling torn vessel edges together. 

• Fibroblasts and endothelial cells begin tissue repair. 

 

Clot Removal (Fibrinolysis): 

• After healing, plasminogen is activated to plasmin, which dissolves the clot. 

• Prevents excessive clot formation and blockage. 

 

Clotting Factors Overview (Selected): 

Factor	Name	Source
I	Fibrinogen	Liver
II	Prothrombin	Liver
III	Tissue Factor (Thromboplastin)	Tissues
IV	Calcium ions	Diet/bone
V–XIII	Various proteins (mostly liver)	Liver

 

Conclusion: 

Blood coagulation is a life-saving, controlled process that protects the body from hemorrhage. Its failure leads to bleeding disorders (e.g., hemophilia), while hyperactivity can cause thrombosis. 

 

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